China. Buddhism first entered China some time during the 1st century ce, probably with foreign traders who arrived via the Silk Road or from the maritime route along the south-eastern seaboard. For the first two centuries or so, it existed primarily among immigrant settlements, while slowly making its presence known among the native Chinese population. As interest grew during the 2nd century, a few monks began translating scriptures into Chinese. Notable among these were An Shih-kao and Lokakṣema. With the fall of the Han dynasty in the early 3rd century, interest in Buddhism among the Chinese increased as the unstable political situation inspired people to seek new answers. At the same time, the division of China into kingdoms north and south of the Yangtze River gave Buddhism a different character in these two regions. In the north, greater proximity to India meant that Buddhism in this region had a greater number of Indian and central Asian monks and meditation teachers, and so tended to emphasize religious practice over textual study. In addition, from the early 4th century to the late 6th, the north was under non-Chinese rule. These ‘barbarian’ rulers favoured Buddhism and many monks served as court advisers, giving Buddhism in the north a more overtly political character. Many of the literati had fled the troubles of the north and migrated to the Southern Kingdoms, bringing with them their emphasis on literary skill. In addition to this, the Northern Kingdoms blocked their access to the living traditions of India and Central Asia, and so the south developed a more literary approach to Buddhist study. During this time, Tao-an (312-85) produced the first catalogue of Buddhist scripture, and he and his disciples worked to produce critical editions of scriptures and treatises, and to develop principles for their translation into Chinese. It was during this period that Kumārajīva arrived in 402 and opened his translation bureau in the north, producing some of the finest translations from Sanskrit, many of which are still considered the standard. His rendering of Indian Madhyamaka texts led to the foundation of the San-lun (or ‘Three Treatise’) school that specialized in Madhyamaka philosophy. Also, the dissemination of Buddhist texts and teachings among the educated élite led to a prolonged exchange of ideas between Buddhism and Taoism, and Buddhism absorbed and modified many Taoist ideas.
Other significant figures of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms period include Tao-sheng (360-434) a great textual scholar; Lu-shan Hui-yüan (344-416) and T'an-luan (476-542), who helped establish the Pure Land teachings; the San-lun master Seng-chao (374-414); and the great translator Paramārtha (499-569), whose translations of Indian Mind-only (citta-mātra) literature paved the way for the future establishment of the Fa-hsiang school.
China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 581 bce, but this was quickly toppled by the T'ang dynasty in 618. The T'ang dynasty held power for almost 300 years, and this period represents one of China's golden ages. Buddhism flourished during this period, although it also suffered severe setbacks. Increased affluence and patronage enabled many original thinkers and practitioners to establish schools of Buddhism more in keeping with Chinese cultural and intellectual patterns and less dependent upon pre-existing Indian schools of thought. Examples include Chih-i (538-97), who founded the T'ien-t'ai school; Fa-tsang (643-712), who consolidated the Hua-yen school; and the various meditation masters who established Ch'an as a separate school that transmitted the Buddha-mind directly ‘outside of words and scriptures’. Tao-ch'o (562-645), Shan-tao (613-81), and others continued building up the Pure Land movement, extending T'an-luan's teaching further. During this time Hsüan-tsang (596-664) travelled in India for sixteen years and brought back many texts which he translated into Chinese. After Kumārajīva, he is considered the second of the great translators in Chinese Buddhist history. He concentrated on Indian Yogacāra thought, and, building on the foundation laid by Paramārtha, founded the Fa-hsiang school.
Prosperity brought its own difficulties. As the numbers of ordained clergy increased, the government became concerned about the revenue and labour pool that would be lost due to the clergy's tax-and labour-exempt status. In addition, ever since Buddhism's inception in China some traditional Confucian scholars had decried it as a foreign religion that violated basic Chinese values, especially the loyalty that all citizens owed to the state and the filial piety that sons and daughters owed their parents. In addition, Taoists sometimes saw in Buddhism an antagonist and competitor rather than a colleague. In the past, the government instituted ordination examinations and state-issued certificates to control the size of the Saṃgha, and twice during the Northern and Southern Kingdoms period the state had suppressed Buddhism (in 446 and 574). In the year 845, the T'ang court was incited to suppress Buddhism once again, and for three years it pursued this policy of razing monasteries and temples, forcing clergy back into lay life or even killing them, and burning books, images, and properties. Unlike the previous two persecutions, this suppression happened in a unified China and affected all areas. Scholars are agreed that this event marked the end of Buddhism's intellectual and cultural dominance, as the Saṃgha never recovered its former glory. The T'ien-t'ai and Hua-yen schools experienced some revivals thereafter, but lost most of their vigour. The Pure Land and Ch'an school, being much less dependent upon patronage and scholarship, fared better and became the two dominant schools of Buddhism in China thereafter. After the persecution, Ch'an communities experimented with new teaching methods that circumvented conventional teaching and inculcated a dramatic, instantaneous experience of enlightenment (bodhi). The leading figures in this movement were Ma-tsu Tao-i (709-88), Pai-chang Huai-hai (749-814), Huang-po Hsi-yün (d. 850), Lin-chi I-hsüan (founder of the Lin-chi school, d. 866), Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807-69), and Ts'ao-shan Pen-chi (840-901), the two founders of the Ts'ao-tung school.
After the T'ang, the intellectual vigour of Buddhism was eclipsed by the rise of Neo- Confucianism in the Sung dynasty. Nevertheless, there were significant figures and movements during this time. Many figures worked to reconcile the very different outlooks and methods of the Ch'an and Pure Land schools, notably Yüng-ming Yen-shou (904-75) and Yün-ch'i Chu-hung (1532-1612). The latter was part of a revival of Ch'an in the latter half of the Ming dynasty that also included Tz'u-p'o Chen-k'o (1543-1603), Han-shan Te'-ch'ing (1546-1623), and Ou-i Chih-hsü (1599-1655). All agreed that Pure Land and Ch'an, though differing in method, strove toward the same goal, though Han-shan and Tz'u-p'o still tended to define this goal in Ch'an terms. Chih-hsü, however, emphasized Pure Land teaching almost exclusively and came to be regarded as one of the patriarchs of this school.
From the Ming to the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism stagnated (although it remained strong in the central eastern seaboard) until the end of the 19th century, when there was a revival of interest in it as a part of the Chinese heritage that could be brought out to counter Western culture's claims of superiority. During the early years of the 20th century, figures such as Ou-yang Ching-wu (1871-1943) and the monk T'ai-hsü (1889-1947) sponsored new editions of the scripture and advocated a modernized educational system that would bring Buddhism into alignment with modern currents of thought.
The Communist victory in 1949 cut short the revival of Buddhism, as the new regime tried to undercut all societal support for religion in general. The Cultural Revolution proved a catastrophe for Buddhism during the 1960s and 1970s, as Red Guards destroyed many temples and treasures, and clergy were forced to return to lay status and submit to re-education. However, after the death of Communist leader Mao Tse-tung in 1976 and the passing of many of his allies, the government has grown more tolerant, and many monasteries are back in operation. Currently, the Chinese Buddhist Association is a thriving organization, and Chinese universities sponsor the academic study of Buddhism. To what extent Buddhism will recover from the setbacks of the Mao era remains to be seen.
china : (nt.) cīnaraṭṭha.
東震 [py] dōng zhèn [wg] tong-chen [ko] 동진 tongjin [ja] トウシン tōshin ||| East Asia; China.
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